Women in Early Islam: Power, Policy, and Patriarchy
The process of cultural assimilation also meant that many of the restrictions imposed on women by later Muslim scholars became entrenched
The emergence and expansion of Islam under the leadership of Muhammad not only transformed the spiritual landscape of the Arabian Peninsula but also reshaped social norms and gender roles in profound ways. From the pre-Islamic era of matrilineal Bedouin tribes to the formation of an empire defined by both military conquest and deep-rooted patriarchal principles, the story of women in early Islam is a complex tapestry of empowerment, resistance, and gradual subjugation.
Pre-Islamic Arabia
Before the advent of Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was a harsh, isolated desert inhabited primarily by nomadic Bedouin tribes. These tribes, known for their fierce independence, operated on principles that, in many respects, allowed women a measure of respect and agency uncommon in later periods. Tribal life was collectively organized, with decisions made through consensus among clan members. In many of these early societies, women were not only participants in daily economic and social life but also served as warriors, poets, and custodians of tradition.
Many Arabian clans were likely matrilineal, where descent and property were traced through the mother’s line. Although the society was male dominated, the material conditions of life ensured that women often shared in economic responsibilities and even took part in raids, competitions of poetry, and decision-making processes. Poetic contests were highly esteemed, and women were celebrated for their literary talent and sharp wit. In southern Arabia, particularly in Yemen, advanced irrigation systems and thriving trade networks allowed for the emergence of prosperous trading states. These states not only traded exotic goods such as myrrh and frankincense but also developed sophisticated social and legal systems. Archaeological remains of fortified cities, temples, and written legal codes testify to a complex society where women sometimes held significant status.
Yet even in these comparatively egalitarian settings, social practices such as polyandry, multiple marriages, and even the acceptance of charging for sex indicate that gender roles were fluid and not yet rigidly defined by later standards. Over time, however, the gradual spread of male domination began to reshape these traditions, setting the stage for the more patriarchal structures that would later emerge under Islam.
Muhammad’s Early Life and the Foundations of a New Faith
Muhammad’s own life story is intertwined with the social transformations that were taking place in Arabia. Born around 570 CE into a minor branch of the dominant Quraish clan of Mecca, Muhammad’s early years were marked by personal tragedy and shifting allegiances. Orphaned at a young age, he was raised within his mother’s clan before being taken under the wing of his uncle, Abu Talib. As a young man, Muhammad worked for Khadija—a wealthy, widowed businesswoman who would later become his first and most influential wife. Their partnership was one of mutual respect and economic collaboration; Khadija not only provided financial support but also believed in his prophetic mission when he began to receive revelations.
Around the age of forty, during a period of deep personal reflection on the moral state of Arabian society, Muhammad experienced a series of visions in the cave of Mount Hira. These visitations, which he later attributed to the Angel Gabriel, marked the beginning of a new religious movement. Unlike the polytheistic and, at times, morally lax traditions of pre-Islamic Arabia, Muhammad preached a monotheistic message focused on social justice, moral rectitude, and the need for a unified ethical order. In many respects, his early teachings resonated with the social ethos of the time, advocating for the protection of the weak and the promotion of equality among believers.
Muhammad’s initial focus was not on creating a separate religion but rather on establishing a moral code that would reform the behavior of his people. His emphasis on compassion, honesty, and the care of the poor was radical in an environment where practices such as infanticide, adultery, and exploitation were widespread. Yet as his message gained traction, it also attracted the ire of Meccan elites, setting in motion conflicts that would ultimately force him and his followers to migrate to the more politically accommodating city of Medina in 622 CE—a date that now marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
Women in the Life of Muhammad: Marriages, Alliances, and Early Support
Women were central figures in Muhammad’s life and the early spread of Islam. Khadija, his first wife, remains one of the most revered figures in Islamic history. Not only did she provide unwavering support during his early struggles, but her financial and emotional backing was critical to the survival of his nascent movement. Khadija’s faith in Muhammad’s mission, even when he was ostracized and labeled a liar by the Meccan elite, set the tone for the inclusive message of Islam. Her legacy is such that many later Muslim scholars have argued that without her, Muhammad might never have succeeded.
Following Khadija’s death, Muhammad’s marital life expanded significantly as he married several other women. These marriages were not merely personal relationships; they served to cement alliances with various tribes and factions in a rapidly changing political landscape. ‘Aisha, often regarded as Muhammad’s favorite wife and a key transmitter of his sayings (hadith), played a particularly significant role. Despite the controversies surrounding her young age at marriage, ‘Aisha grew up to be a formidable figure whose accounts of Muhammad’s life became central to Islamic tradition. She was known for her outspoken nature and her deep understanding of the Prophet’s teachings, and her later role in political conflicts—most notably during the Battle of the Camel—underscores the extent to which women could be both influential and divisive figures.
Other wives, such as Hafsa, Umm Salamah, and Sawda, also contributed to the early community by serving as advisors and custodians of the Prophet’s revelations. Their participation in religious instruction was not limited to domestic settings; when women complained that Muhammad’s public discourses were directed solely toward men, he took the time to address them separately, thereby acknowledging their importance in the religious community. In many early accounts, Muhammad is portrayed as a man who valued the contributions of his wives—he even delegated roles such as leading the prayers for women to capable figures like Umm Salamah and Umm Waraqah.
Yet the relationship between Muhammad and his wives was not without tension. As the Islamic community grew and the political stakes became higher, issues of jealousy, control, and propriety began to surface. Incidents that might appear trivial today—such as debates over whether Muhammad should clasp a woman’s hand during oaths—became fodder for later critics and reformers. Some scholars argue that these episodes illustrate a shift in Muhammad’s approach, as he moved from an early period of inclusivity toward measures aimed at regulating women’s public presence and behavior. This change, some suggest, was influenced by both personal insecurities and the pressures of consolidating a new state underpinned by strict social hierarchies.
Women as Active Participants in Early Muslim Society
In the years following Muhammad’s migration to Medina, women were active participants not only in the domestic sphere but also in the broader social and military affairs of the community. Historical accounts reveal that women were among the first converts to Islam and played key roles in various battles. They carried water for wounded soldiers, helped transport the dead, and in some instances, took up arms themselves. One notable example is Umm ‘Umarah, who, armed with a knife and a tent pole, took the men’s oath and vowed to fight any adversary who approached her. Such accounts challenge later portrayals of Muslim women as passive or confined solely to the private realm.
The public activities of women in early Islam were not limited to the battlefield. They were also active in religious, social, and even political arenas. Women like ‘Aisha and Umm Salamah not only received religious instruction directly from Muhammad but also contributed to the compilation and transmission of his teachings. Their voices, recorded in the hadith, provided guidance on matters of law, ritual, and morality. In the early years of the Muslim community, women’s participation in public life was relatively fluid—free women could attend mosque prayers, participate in public debates, and even travel independently in certain contexts.
However, as the Islamic state began to consolidate its power and as competing interpretations of Islamic law emerged, the freedoms that women once enjoyed began to be curtailed. Influential male leaders and scholars gradually reinterpreted Muhammad’s teachings in ways that limited the public roles of women. For instance, as the Muslim community expanded through conquest, debates arose over the proper conduct of women in public spaces, the appropriateness of mixed gatherings in mosques, and the extent to which women should be allowed to interact with unrelated men. These discussions laid the groundwork for a series of legal and cultural prescriptions that would come to define women’s roles in Islamic society for centuries to come.
The Qur’an, the Hadith, and the Legal Framework for Gender Roles
At the heart of Islamic jurisprudence lie the Qur’an and the Hadith—texts that, for believers, are divinely inspired and form the foundation of sharia, or Holy Law. The Qur’an presents marriage as a contract between a man and a woman, establishing rights and responsibilities for both partners. It explicitly grants women the right to inherit, to own property, and to receive a dowry (mahr) from their husbands. These provisions, in many respects, were progressive for their time, especially when compared to pre-Islamic practices that left women vulnerable.
Yet, alongside these rights, the Qur’an also contains passages that have been interpreted to place men in a superior position. A frequently cited verse, Surah 4:34, has been used over the centuries to justify male authority over women. Although Muhammad’s early practice sometimes reflected a more egalitarian approach, later generations of Muslim scholars and jurists built upon these verses to institute rules that curtailed women’s independence. For example, women came to be expected to dress modestly—covering their hair, neck, and sometimes their entire bodies—in a manner that has varied over time and by region. The origins of veiling and seclusion, while present in pre-Islamic cultures, were reinterpreted under Islamic law as markers of piety and respectability, even as they served to reinforce a patriarchal social order.
The Hadith, which record the sayings and actions of Muhammad and his companions, further shaped gender dynamics in the Muslim community. Some hadiths describe instances where Muhammad helped with household chores, suggesting an early recognition of shared domestic responsibilities. However, as the community grew, later interpretations of these texts began to emphasize the subordination of women. By the tenth century, male scholars had used select hadiths to argue that women should be confined to the home and excluded from certain public roles. In many cases, the legal prescriptions derived from these texts did not strictly adhere to Muhammad’s original practices but instead reflected later cultural and political priorities.
Legal innovations such as the practice of temporary marriage (or “mut’a”) and detailed marriage contracts also emerged during this period, further defining the rights and obligations of women. While the Qur’an guarantees certain economic rights for women, including the right to retain control of their dowries and property, in practice many women found it difficult to exercise these rights. Mechanisms such as the waqf—a type of endowment that could restrict the transfer of property—were sometimes used to sidestep the spirit of Qur’anic inheritance laws. Over time, the balance between the rights granted on paper and the realities of social practice grew increasingly skewed against women.
Conquest, Expansion, and the Changing Status of Women
The first century of Islam was marked by rapid expansion, with Arab Muslims conquering vast territories across the Middle East, North Africa, and beyond. This period of conquest brought Islam into contact with diverse cultures and traditions, leading to a complex interplay between local customs and the emerging Islamic legal framework. While some of these interactions resulted in a degree of tolerance and pluralism—Muslim rulers often allowed People of the Book (Jews and Christians) to practice their religions—there was also a persistent drive to enforce a unified social order that emphasized male dominance.
In the early decades after Muhammad’s death, women continued to play active roles. They participated in military campaigns, provided support to their communities, and even engaged in political struggles. However, as the Islamic empire grew, the administration of a vast and diverse territory necessitated the development of more rigid legal structures. Successive caliphs and rulers began to codify practices that increasingly restricted women’s public and private lives. For example, under Caliph ‘Umar, strict measures were imposed that confined women to the home and barred them from the mosque in many contexts. Although some of these policies were later relaxed by ‘Uthman and other leaders, the overall trend was toward a narrowing of women’s freedom.
This shift was not merely a product of administrative convenience; it was deeply intertwined with emerging ideas about family honor, sexual modesty, and the preservation of a male-dominated social order. Concepts like izzat—the notion of family honor maintained almost exclusively by men—became central to the identity of Muslim communities. Women, whose behavior was seen as crucial to upholding this honor, were placed under intense scrutiny and were expected to adhere to strict codes of conduct. These cultural norms, reinforced by legal prescriptions and religious rhetoric, gradually relegated women to roles defined by domesticity and subservience, even as they had once enjoyed considerable autonomy in the early years of Islam.
The Enduring Legacy and the Impact on Later Muslim Societies
The early period of Islamic history presents a paradox: on the one hand, there were moments of inclusivity, dynamic public engagement, and progressive legal provisions for women; on the other hand, later interpretations and institutional developments led to a systematic subordination of women. Women who had once been key transmitters of religious knowledge—figures like ‘Aisha, Khadija, and Umm Salamah—eventually found their voices diminished as Islamic jurisprudence evolved to solidify male authority.
As Islam spread beyond Arabia, local customs and traditions played a significant role in shaping its practice. In regions as diverse as Persia, Turkey, India, and North Africa, Islamic law was adapted to fit preexisting social structures. In some cases, these adaptations allowed women to maintain certain rights—such as property ownership through waqfs or participation in local commerce—but in others they reinforced patriarchal norms. Elite women in some courts managed to wield significant behind-the-scenes influence, advising rulers and shaping policy, yet these instances were exceptions rather than the rule.
The process of cultural assimilation also meant that many of the restrictions imposed on women by later Muslim scholars became entrenched. The interpretation of key Qur’anic passages, particularly those addressing gender roles and the relative status of men and women, was used to justify practices that excluded women from political and religious leadership. Even though the Qur’an itself contains provisions for women’s economic and social rights, the balance between what was theoretically granted and what was practiced in daily life was often skewed by prevailing patriarchal attitudes.
In later centuries, as Muslim empires such as the Abbasids, Ottomans, and Mamluks rose and fell, the legal and cultural frameworks that governed women’s lives became even more complex. While there were periods of remarkable cultural and intellectual flourishing—when women contributed to art, literature, and religious scholarship—the overall trend in many regions was toward greater seclusion and limitation. The institution of the harem, for instance, became emblematic of elite women's constrained status, even though it also provided a space in which some women wielded power and influence. The contradictory nature of these developments continues to shape debates over gender and religious identity in the modern Muslim world.
Sophie
Sophie
Sophie
